The only uncomplicated and explicit compulsory UCC is that of Monaco, where all non-perishable and non-postal deliveries3 have to be delivered to the UCC for onward distribution, at the expense of the principality. The principality is a sovereign micro polity outside the EU and laws on free trade, and as such makes for a poor use case [53].

Vicenza has implemented a top-down prohibition on vehicles entering the historic city centre and required the use of a CUCC for most goods; it faced multiple legal challenges from logistics operators with global reach. The case was found in the city’s favour by the highest court in Italy because legal environmental obligations can override free trade in very localised areas; it was not tested at the EU level, and the carriers stated clearly that they will challenge any further such imposition in any city globally [60]. This precedent for clear legal compulsion has not been repeated, other cities usually offer ‘carrot and stick’ inducements, such as Utrecht, where operators can avoid time window delivery restrictions in exchange for audited levels of operational efficiency and higher load factors [59]. Such restrictive access to urban cities increases both the cost and the volume of last mile deliveries, increasing congestion, carbon footprint, and air pollution and lowering competitiveness. This is usually due to increased trips less well loaded in a limited time period, as opposed to fewer trips better loaded over a full working day. For example, in the case of Parma such restrictions have been modelled as resulting in +34% more tours and +9% distance travelled [61].

When an organisation controls a territory wholly it can mandate the use of a UCC. This has been the case with the Heathrow Consolidation Centre [53,57], the Houses of Parliament, most MOD sites, and some other examples (such as large theme parks in the USA) where security and safety concerns are such that unauthorised access is not allowed. These are funded at the cost of the territory owner. They reduce overall vehicle kilometres on site since the effect is to extend the front door of the establishment to a safe perimeter. Since historic city centres are not usually a wholly controlled territory, these are also not use cases.

There is another semi-controlled territory, and that is property owned by a landlord and leased to tenants. Such landlords with retail tenants have set up UCCs and encouraged their tenants to use them, usually with low take-up. Examples are the Regent Street CC initiated by Crown Estates [62], the Meadowhall UCC initiated by British Land, the Bristol-Bath UCC, and the Stadsleveransen UCC (and accompanying ‘delivery caravan’) in Gothenburg, as illustrated in Figure 3 below [63].