Figure 7: Different stakeholder experiences of CCC, Janné, [85]
Top-down implementation by law will be challenged. Whilst the Vicenza case was upheld, this may not the case in the UK courts. Global and local carriers co-operated to oppose the Vicenza case and have stated they will do so again, globally. The Vicenza case, the Swedish scheme, and the development of construction logistics guidance suggest routes to cut the ‘Gordian Knot’. To do that the primacy of either the principle of equality and non-discrimination OR environmental and sustainability obligations will need to be defined and decided in the UK.
This may already be soluble with existing law and regulation. It may only apply in limited geographical areas, market niches or only certain goods types. It should avoid creating delivery windows which have negative sustainability effects. It may require clarification with secondary or tertiary legislation/regulation.
The other question that would be worth exploring is whether this law is observed and enforced, for example the Limited Traffic Zone (LTZ) of Como is only monitored in one-way directions but vehicles flout the regulation by entering through exit lanes (Oesterle et al., 2015).
Ten UCCs are reported as current in Italy, the examples of Parma and Genoa, whose regulations initially favoured a UCC, are also interesting. In both cases, a municipal ordinance restricted the access of an LTZ to non-accredited vehicles. Two basic requirements have to be met to obtain accreditation: the use of low emission vehicles and better optimization of vehicle load when entering the zone, albeit no compulsory consolidation centre. [86]
However, Southern European cities have a much higher level of own account logistics than Northwest Europe (66% in S versus 33% in the NW), and usually these vehicles are owned by residents who use them for domestic purposes as well as servicing their SME shop, café, or retail business. Such residents are always allowed an exemption [87].
The carriage of some dangerous goods, goods from air carriers and the post were all contentious issues in the Vicenza case and from the author's conversations with postal carriers across Europe, none will accept the carriage of the mail by another carrier, either for legal reasons or human resources reasons. This may need to be addressed if it was a hard requirement. Opening discussions with UPS suggest that they and other